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Ideal Gas Equation - Learn Ideal Gas Equation & Limitations

December 21, 2019 | Labels:


Ideal Gas Equation

PV =nRT is considered as Ideal Gas Equation which describes the behaviour of a gas. This is also known as the General Equation of gas. This equation gives the relationship between pressure, temperature, volume and amount of gas.

Ideal Gas Equation Derivation

Boyle’s Law states that the Volume of the system is inversely proportional to the pressure of the system where the number of moles and temperature remains constant.
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook
Charle’s Law states that the Volume of the system is directly proportional to the Temperature.
newton's law of cooling - Testbook.JPG
According to Avogadro’s Law the volume of the system is directly proportional to the number of moles contained in the system.
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
Combining all these equations we get,
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
R: Gas Constant
This equation is known as Ideal Gas Law. According to the Equation, Ideal gas is the one who’s Volume is proportional to the number of moles and temperature and inversely proportional to the pressure. This equation is true for only ideal gases. An ideal gas is a hypothetical condition to a gaseous substance where there are negligible intermolecular forces and molecular size is insignificant as compared to the empty spaces between molecules. The condition which can result in an ideal gas is low pressure and high temperature only.

Value of Gas Constant R

In equation PV=nRT, If P is expressed in atmosphere (atm), V in litres(L), T in kelvin(K), and n in moles(mol). Substituting it in the Ideal Gas Equation, we have
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
PV together as a unit of energy. So The Unit of R is J/K.mol
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
This Ideal Gas Equation can be used to find the value of any one of the variable if other four are known. We can also predict the final state(P, V, T, n) of the gas when its initial state(P, V, T, n) of the variables is known. Let, there be two conditions of an ideal gas: initial and final condition.
Initial condition:  Pi, Vi,  ni, Ti
Final condition: Pf, Vf, nf, Tf
Then,
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook
This will result in
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook


Since both are the values of R, we get
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg


This equation is known as a general gas equation.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

T = 273.15 K (0 degree Celcius)
P= 105 Pa (1 bar)
The volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas = 22.71 litres (at STP)
The volume of 1 mole of an ideal gas = 22.41 litres (at 1 atm and 0 degrees Celcius)

Limitations of Ideal Gas

An ideal gas is based on assumptions that are not true.
  1. In reality, Ideal gas does not exist, but the ideal gas equation is very helpful to understand the behaviour of gases during reactions.
  2. Gases at low density, low pressure and high temperature approximately behave as Ideal Gas.
  3. Ideal gas law doesn’t work for low temperature, high density and extremely high pressures because at this condition the molecular size and intermolecular forces matters.
  4. Ideal gas law does not apply for heavy gases(refrigerants) and gases with strong intermolecular forces(like Water Vapour).

Summarised Notes 

Check the summarised notes on Ideal Gas Equation to revise quickly.
  1. The ideal gas equation is given by:
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook
  1. The general gas equation is given by:
Ideal Gas Equation - Testbook.jpg
  1. Standard temperature and pressure are taken as 273.15 K (0 degrees Celcius) and 105 Pa (1 bar) respectively.
Hope this article on the Ideal gas equation has helped you understand the concepts covered here. You can put your comment below in case you have a query or doubt.

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By JYOTI SAGAR

Tissue

December 19, 2019 | Labels:


TISSUE
Epithetical Tissue
(i) On the basis of cell layers
(a) When an epithelium has a single layer of cells it is called a simple epithelium.
(b) Where as a multiple tier of cells are known as stratified epithelium.
(ii) On the basis of simple shape of cells:
Ø  Cuboidal : its occurrence is in kidney tubules, salivery glands, inner lining of the cheek. Its main function is to give mechanical strength.
Ø  Columnar : its occurrence is in sweat gland, tear gland, salivary gland its main function is to gives mechanical strength concerned with secretions.
Ø  Squamous : when it forms a living as that of blood vessels, it is called endothelium.
Its main function is to protect the underlying parts from injury, entry of germs, etc.
Ø  Connective tissue : Its main function is to bind and support other tissues.
There are a few types of connective tissue.

Connective Tissue
Arelor
(i) Tendon
(ii) Ligament

Adipose Skeletal
(i) Bone
(ii) Cartilage

Fluid
(i) Blood
(ii) Lymph

A. Areolar tissue : It fills spaces inside organs found around muscles, blood vessels and nerves. Its main function is to joins skin to muscles, support internal organs, help in the repair of tissues. Whereas tendon’s main function is to connect muscles to bones and ligament is connects bones to each other.

B. Adipose tissue : Its occurrence is below skin, between internal organs and in the yellow bone Marrow. Its main function is to storage of fat and to conserve heat.

C. Skeletal tissue : Bone & cartilage occurrences is in nose, epigotis and in intervertebral disc of mammals. Its main function is to provide support and flexibility to body part. Whereas bone protects internal delicate organs provides attachments for muscles, bone marrow makes blood cells.

D. Fluid tissue : Blood & Lymph blood transport O2 nutrients, hormones to tissues and organs. Whereas leucocytes fight diseases and platelets help in cloting of blood. Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and it also forms the defense system of the body.

Muscular Tissue
It is specialized for ability to contract muscle cells.
Types of Muscular tissue:
A. Skeletal muscle: It attached primarily to bones. Its main function is to provide the force for locomotion and all other voluntary movements of the body.
B. Cardiac muscle: It occurs only in the heart. The contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles help to pump the blood and distribute it to the various parts of the body.
C. Smooth muscle: It can be found in stomach, intestines, and blood vessels these muscles cause slow and prolonged contractions which are involuntary.
D. Nervous tissue: This tissue is specialized with a capability to conduct electrical impulses and convey
information from one area of the body to another. Most of the nervous tissue (98%) is located in the central nervous system. The brain and spinal cord.
Types of Nervous Tissue
Ø  neurons
Ø  neuroglia

Important facts regarding animal tissue:-
Ø  Muscles contain special protein called contractile protein. Which contract and relax to cause
Ø  Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and between internal organs.
Ø  Two bones are connected to each other by a tissue called ligament. This tissue is very elastic.
Ø  The skin, the living of the mouth, the living blood vessels, kidney tubules are all made up of epithelial tissue.
Ø  Voluntary muscles and cardiac muscles are richly supplied with blood whereas involuntary muscles are poorly supplied with blood.

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Animal Cell

December 19, 2019 | Labels:


CELL

Cell: It is the basic structural unit of life.
Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke.
Note: The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
Amoeba acquires its food through endocytosis.
1.       Prokaryotes cells - cells that have no defined nucleus
Eg: Bacteria & Blue-green Algae
2.       Eukaryote - cells which have definite nucleus
Eg: Other than Bacteria & Blue-green Algae
Compounds called proteins and phospholipids make up most of the cell membrane.

Diffusion-It is a process of movements of substance from a region of high concentration to a region where its concentration is low. Water also obeys the law of diffusion.
Eg: Substances like Co2 and O2 can move across the cell membranes by a process called diffusion.

Osmosis: The movement of water molecules is called osmosis. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion through a selectively permeable membrane.

Types of Osmosis:
1.       Hypotonic: more water will come into the cell than will leave. The cell is likely to swell up.
2.       Isotonic: the amount going in is the same as the amount going out of the cell.The cell will stay the same size.
3.       Hypertonic: more water leaves the cell than enters it. Therefore the cell will shrink.
When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

Cytoplasm: It is the fluid that fills a cell. Scientists used to call the fluid protoplasm.

Ribosomes: It synthesis protein, and Endoplasmic reticulum sent these protein in various part of the cell. Whereas Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum helps in the manufacture of fats. It a made up of ribonucleic acid.

Functions of these proteins and fats:
·         Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell membranes. This process is known as membranes biogenesis.
·         Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

Golgi apparatus :  It is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum functions:
·         It is the organelle that builds lysosomes  (cells digestion machines).

Lysosomes(suicidal bag): It is a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.

Mitochondria(power house):  The energy required for various chemical activities headed for life is released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (adenosine-tri-phosphate) molecules.
Ø  ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
Ø  Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes, therefore mitochondria are able to make their own protein.
Ø  Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals and higher animals.

Centrioles:  centrioles are concerned with cell division. It initiates cell division.

Plastids: These are present only in plant cells.
Types of plastids:-
Ø  Chromoplast(colour plastides)  impart colour to flowers and fruits.
Ø  Leucoplasts(white or colourless plastids) present  in which starch, oils and protein are stored.
Ø  Plastids are self-replicating. i.e. they have the power to divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
Ø  Plastides contains the pigment chlorophyll that is known as chloroplast. It is the site for photo synthesis.
non –living parts with in the cell :-

Vacuoles: it is a fluid filled spaces enclosed by membranes. Its size in animal is small and in plant it is big.
Amino acids and sugars are stored in vacuoles.

Granules: It is not bounded by any membranes. It store fats, proteins and carbohydrates.

Cell nucleus: The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement
and reproduction. Not all cells have a nucleus.
The nucleus contain, the following components :
(a) Nuclear envelope (nuclear membrane)
(b) Chromatin : When the cell is in resting state there is something called chromatin in the nucleus. Chromatin is made up of DNA, RNA and nucleus protein. DNA and RNA are the nucleus acids inside the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the chromatin become very compact. It condenses when the chromatin comes together we can see the chromosomes.
(c) Chromosomes: Chromosomes make organisms what they are. They carry all the information used to help a cell grow, thrive and reproduce.
Ø  Chromosomes are made up of DNA.
Ø  Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes.
Ø  In prokaryotes, DNA floats in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.
Ø  Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose shards called chromation.
Ø  Chromosomes are usually found in pairs.
Ø  Human Beings probably have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Ø  Peas only have 12, a dog has 78 chromosomes.
Ø  The number of chromosomes is not related to the intelligence or complexity of the creature.
(d) Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical granule contained within the nucleus.It stores proteins.

Cell Division
Organisms grow and reduce through cell  division.
There are two methods of replication mitosis and meiosis.
(a) Mitosis: It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells (daughter cells) have the same pieces and generic code. There are five steps in this process. You should remember the term PMATI. It breaks down to :
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
5. Interphase.
The main theme of meiosis is that there are two cell division. Mitosis has one division

Some important facts regarding cells :
Ø  Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells.
Ø  Smallest human cell is red blood cell.
Ø  Largest human cell is female ovum.
Ø  The single largest cell in the world is of an ostrich.
Ø  The smallest cells are those of the mycoplasma.
Ø  Every minute about 3 million cells in our body die.
Ø  Sieve tube in plants and the mature mammalian red blood cells do not have a nucleus.
Ø  The red blood cell carries respiratory gases.
Ø  Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients in plants.
Ø  The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm cells digest the limiting membranes of the ovum (egg). Thus the sperm is able to enter the ovum.
Ø  During the transformation of tadpole into frog. The embryonic tissues like gills and tail are digested by the lysosome.
Ø  Mitochondria contain DNA, hence capable of replication.
Ø  Matrix is a transparent, homogenous semi-fluid substance. In its active state. It remains saturated with water.

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Simple Harmonic Motion - Detailed Notes with Important Features & Related Terms!

December 18, 2019 | Labels:

What is Simple Harmonic Motion?


A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion if it moves to and fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position.

If the displacement of the oscillating body from the mean position is small, then
Restoring force ∝ Displacement
F  ∝  x     or     F = -kx
The above equation defines SHM. Where k is a positive constant called force constant or spring factor and is defined as the restoring force produced per unit displacement. The SI unit of k is Nm-1. the negative force represents that restoring force F always acts in the opposite direction of the displacement x.
According to Newton’s second law of motion,
simple harmonic motion - Testbook
So, Simple Harmonic Motion can also be defined as,
A particle is said to possess S.H.M if it moves to and fro about a mean position under an acceleration which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position. 
Some examples of Simple Harmonic Motion are:
  1. Oscillation of a loaded spring
  2. Vibrations of a tuning fork
  3. Vibrations of the balance wheel of a watch
  4. A freely suspended magnet in a uniform magnetic field oscillates in a simple harmonic motion.

Important Features of Simple Harmonic Motion

  1. The motion of the particle is periodic
  2. It is the oscillatory motion of the simplest kind in which the particle oscillates back and forth above its mean position with constant amplitude and fixed frequency.
  3. Restoring force acting on the particle is proportional to its displacement from the mean position.
  4. The force acting on the particle always opposes the increase in its displacement
  5. A simple harmonic motion can always be expressed in terms of a single harmonic function of sine or cosine.
Simple Harmonic Motion - Testbook

Important Terms Related to Simple Harmonic Motion

  1. Harmonic Oscillator: a particle executing simple harmonic motion is called a harmonic oscillator.
  2. Displacement: the distance of the oscillating particle from its mean position at any instant is called its displacement. It is denoted by x.
  3. Amplitude: the maximum displacement of the oscillating particle on either side of its mean is called its amplitude.
  4. Oscillation: one complete back and forth motion of a particle starting and ending at the same point is called a cycle or oscillation
  5. Time period: the time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation is called a time period.
  6. Frequency: it is defined as the number of oscillations completed per unit time by a particle.
  7. Angular Frequency: it is the quantity obtained by multiplying frequency by a factor of 2ℼ
  8. Phase: the phase of a vibrating particle at any instant gives the state of the particle as regards its position and the direction of motion at that instant. Suppose a simple harmonic equation is represented by:
x = Acos(ɷt + 𝚹)
Then phase of the particle 𝚹0 = ɷt + 𝚹

Summarized Notes On Simple Harmonic Motion

  1. A particle is said to execute simple harmonic motion if it moves to and fro about a mean position under the action of a restoring force which is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position.
  2. For a simple harmonic motion, acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement
  3. The equation of SHM can be given by: x = Acos(ɷt + 𝚹)

Hope you understood the concept covered in this article Simple Harmonic Motion. 

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